Green Fuel Technologies: Bio-Derived Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF) – From Waste to Jet-Fuel
- Green Fuel Journal
- Oct 30
- 15 min read
The aviation sector stands at a crossroads. With air travel responsible for approximately 2.5% of global energy-related carbon dioxide emissions, the pressure to decarbonize has never been more intense. Enter green fuel technologies—a diverse ecosystem of solutions designed to power our future without compromising the planet. Among these innovations, bio-derived sustainable aviation fuel emerges as one of the most promising pathways to slash emissions while keeping planes in the air.
Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF), particularly waste-to-jet fuel variants, represents a mature, commercially viable solution available today. Unlike experimental alternatives that require decades of development, SAF technology already powers commercial flights across six continents. This comprehensive guide examines how waste-to-jet SAF technology transforms agricultural residues, used cooking oil, and municipal solid waste into jet fuel capable of reducing lifecycle carbon emissions by up to 80% compared to conventional petroleum-based kerosene.
You'll discover the feedstock sources driving SAF production, the ASTM D7566 certified SAF pathways that ensure safety and performance, real-world applications across commercial aviation, and the challenges stakeholders must overcome to scale this critical green fuel technology. Whether you're a student researching renewable energy, a policymaker crafting aviation decarbonization strategies, or an investor evaluating opportunities in clean transportation, this article provides the foundational knowledge needed to understand SAF's role in achieving net-zero aviation by 2050.
Where SAF Fits Within Green Fuel Technologies
The green fuel technologies landscape encompasses multiple pathways toward decarbonization. Green hydrogen produced through water electrolysis using renewable electricity offers zero-emission potential for transportation and industry. E-fuels (synthetic fuels created from captured carbon dioxide and green hydrogen) provide another avenue, though commercial viability remains years away. Biofuels—including biodiesel, bioethanol, and sustainable aviation fuel—leverage organic matter to displace fossil resources.
Within this ecosystem, bio-derived sustainable aviation fuel occupies a unique position. Unlike green hydrogen, which requires fundamental aircraft redesign, or e-fuels still in early commercialization stages, SAF functions as a "drop-in" replacement. This term means SAF can blend directly with conventional jet fuel without modifications to aircraft engines, fuel infrastructure, or distribution systems. Airlines can start reducing emissions immediately by purchasing SAF without waiting for new aircraft technologies.
The significance cannot be overstated. Aviation presents unique decarbonization challenges compared to road transport. Battery-electric aircraft remain impractical for long-haul routes due to energy density limitations. Hydrogen aircraft show promise but require extensive infrastructure overhaul and won't enter commercial service at scale until the 2030s or beyond. Sustainable aviation fuel bridges this gap, offering immediate emissions reductions using existing fleets—the 26,000+ commercial aircraft already flying worldwide.
Feedstocks & Production Pathways for Bio-Derived SAF
Feedstock Overview
The foundation of waste-to-jet SAF technology lies in sustainable feedstock selection. Unlike first-generation biofuels that sparked food-versus-fuel debates, bio-derived SAF prioritizes waste materials and non-food sources. Primary feedstocks include:
Used Cooking Oil (UCO): Collected from restaurants, food processing facilities, and households, UCO represents one of the most established SAF feedstocks. Its high energy density and compatibility with existing refining infrastructure make it ideal for HEFA SAF technology production.
Animal Fats (Tallow): Byproducts from meat processing provide another lipid-based feedstock. While availability varies regionally, tallow offers consistent quality and well-understood processing requirements.
Agricultural Residues: Crop waste materials including corn stover, wheat straw, sugarcane bagasse, and rice husks contain cellulosic matter convertible to SAF through advanced thermochemical processes. These residues address waste management challenges while creating value for farmers.
Forestry Residues: Logging operations and sawmills generate woody biomass unsuitable for timber products. These materials feed gasification and Fischer-Tropsch processes to produce synthetic paraffinic kerosene.
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): The non-recyclable organic fraction of household and commercial waste can fuel SAF production while diverting material from landfills, simultaneously addressing waste management and aviation emissions.
Critical to SAF's sustainability credentials are certification frameworks ensuring feedstocks don't trigger deforestation, compete with food production, or harm biodiversity. The International Sustainability and Carbon Certification (ISCC) system and Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials (RSB) standards provide third-party verification that feedstocks meet environmental and social criteria.
Feedstock Mapping Table:
Technology Pathways
Seven ASTM D7566 certified SAF pathways enable conversion of diverse feedstocks into aviation fuel meeting rigorous safety and performance standards. These approvals from ASTM International (American Society for Testing and Materials) ensure SAF performs identically to conventional jet fuel across all operational conditions.
Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA): The most commercially mature pathway, HEFA SAF technology accounts for approximately 82% of current global SAF production capacity. The process hydrogenates lipid feedstocks (UCO, animal fats, plant oils) at high temperatures and pressures, removing oxygen atoms and saturating carbon chains to create hydrocarbon molecules chemically similar to petroleum-derived jet fuel.
HEFA's dominance stems from several advantages. Existing refinery infrastructure requires minimal modification to accommodate HEFA processing. Feedstock energy density closely matches petroleum, reducing processing complexity. Capital costs for HEFA facilities run 30-50% lower than advanced conversion pathways. However, feedstock constraints limit ultimate scale—global UCO and animal fat supplies can support only a fraction of aviation's fuel demand.
Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (FT-SPK): This pathway gasifies solid feedstocks (MSW, agricultural residues, forestry waste) into synthesis gas (syngas)—a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Catalytic reactions then reassemble syngas molecules into longer-chain hydrocarbons suitable for aviation. FT-SPK offers remarkable feedstock flexibility, accepting materials unsuitable for HEFA processing. Production costs remain higher due to complex gasification requirements, but technological advances continue improving economics.
Alcohol-to-Jet Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (ATJ-SPK): Fermentation converts sugary or starchy biomass into ethanol or isobutanol. Dehydration removes water, followed by oligomerization (linking small molecules into larger chains) and hydroprocessing to create jet-grade hydrocarbons. ATJ technology leverages decades of bioethanol industry experience, making it relatively mature. Feedstock availability—corn, sugarcane, cellulosic materials—provides geographic flexibility.
Additional approved pathways include Hydroprocessed Fermented Sugars to Synthetic Isoparaffins (HFS-SIP), Catalytic Hydrothermolysis Jet (CHJ), and emerging routes like Power-to-Liquid (PtL) combining green hydrogen with captured carbon dioxide to synthesize e-SAF.
The term "drop-in fuel" deserves emphasis. Current certifications permit blending SAF up to 50% with conventional jet fuel (100% SAF blends are undergoing certification). This blended fuel requires zero modifications to aircraft, engines, or fuel systems. Pilots need no additional training. Ground equipment remains unchanged. This compatibility accelerates adoption dramatically compared to alternatives requiring wholesale infrastructure replacement.
Technology Maturity Matrix:
Applications & Market Outlook
Sustainable aviation fuel has transitioned from laboratory curiosity to operational reality. Over 500,000 commercial flights worldwide have operated using SAF blends. Major airlines including United Airlines, Delta, Lufthansa, Air India, Singapore Airlines, and dozens of others have signed long-term offtake agreements securing SAF supply for coming years.
Current usage remains modest—SAF represented approximately 0.3% of global aviation fuel consumption in 2024, rising to an estimated 0.7% in 2025. However, trajectory matters more than current snapshot. SAF production doubled between 2023 and 2024, and mandates plus voluntary commitments ensure continued exponential growth. European Union regulations require 2% SAF blending by 2025, increasing to 6% by 2030 and 70% by 2050. The United Kingdom mandates 10% SAF by 2030. Multiple other jurisdictions are implementing similar requirements.
The International Air Transport Association (IATA), representing 350 airlines covering 80%+ of global air traffic, committed member airlines to achieving net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. IATA's analysis projects sustainable aviation fuel will contribute approximately 65% of the emissions reduction needed to reach this target—making SAF the single most critical decarbonization lever for aviation.
This projection assumes SAF production scales from today's 2 million tonnes annually to roughly 450 million tonnes by 2050—a 200-fold increase. Technology improvements (20% from advanced aircraft and propulsion), operational efficiencies (10% from air traffic management optimization), and carbon removal mechanisms (5% from offsets and direct air capture) contribute the remaining emissions reductions.
Regional Roadmap Snapshot: India/Asia Focus
India, the world's third-largest aviation market, positions itself as a future SAF leader. The country's National Biofuels Coordination Committee set targets for 1% SAF blending with jet fuel for international flights by 2027, rising to 2% by 2028. While starting modestly, India's roadmap accelerates toward 5% blending by 2030.
Several factors position India advantageously. Abundant agricultural residues—rice straw, wheat stubble, sugarcane bagasse—create substantial feedstock availability. The burning of rice straw contributes significantly to air pollution in northern India; converting this waste to bio-derived SAF addresses both aviation emissions and air quality simultaneously.
Indian Oil Corporation, the nation's largest refiner, achieved ISCC CORSIA certification for SAF production at its Panipat facility, becoming India's first certified producer. The facility plans to produce 30,000 tonnes of SAF from used cooking oil by 2026. Air India signed memorandums of understanding with Indian Oil for SAF supply, reinforcing domestic supply chain development.
Uttar Pradesh state unveiled the Sustainable Aviation Fuel Manufacturing Policy-2025, India's first dedicated SAF policy framework. The initiative offers capital subsidies, GST reimbursements, land waivers, and interest subsidies to attract SAF manufacturers. Over 18 companies expressed interest in establishing production facilities, with expected investments exceeding ₹3,000 crore ($360 million USD).
The Global Biofuels Alliance, launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi, positions biofuels—including SAF—as key enablers of India's energy transition and Net-Zero 2070 commitment. Through partnerships with organizations like the Indian Sugar & Bio-Energy Manufacturers Association and technology firms like Praj Industries, India develops indigenous SAF production capabilities leveraging sugarcane molasses, agricultural waste, and other locally available feedstocks.
Across Asia, similar momentum builds. Singapore pursues SAF production from tropical oils and waste streams. China's aviation authorities encourage domestic SAF development. Malaysia and Indonesia, major palm oil producers, explore sustainable aviation fuel pathways carefully balancing sustainability concerns regarding land use and deforestation.
Challenges & Risks
Despite promising momentum, waste-to-jet SAF technology faces substantial hurdles threatening scale-up timelines needed to meet 2050 climate targets.
Feedstock Availability: The so-called "HEFA tipping point" looms. Industry analysis projects that by 2030, global SAF demand will exceed available used cooking oil and animal fat supplies if HEFA remains the dominant pathway. Competition intensifies as renewable diesel (for road transport) also demands these same lipid feedstocks. Transitioning to advanced pathways utilizing agricultural residues, MSW, and synthetic routes becomes essential. However, these technologies require higher capital investment and face commercialization challenges.
Cost Gap: Sustainable aviation fuel costs approximately 3-5 times more than conventional jet fuel at current production scales. This premium stems from multiple factors: feedstock procurement costs, capital-intensive processing facilities, limited production volumes preventing economies of scale, and profit margins reflecting technology risk. For an industry operating on razor-thin margins—airlines typically earn 3-5% profit margins—absorbing these costs proves difficult without passing expenses to consumers through higher ticket prices or receiving government support.
European mandate implementation illustrates cost complexities. When EU and UK SAF mandates activated January 2025, compliance fees charged by producers added unexpectedly to airline costs. For the estimated 1 million tonnes of SAF purchased to meet 2025 European requirements, market prices totaled $1.2 billion. However, compliance fees added another $1.7 billion—making SAF five times costlier than fossil jet fuel and highlighting implementation challenges when mandates precede adequate market development.
Infrastructure & Scale-Up: Producing 400+ million tonnes of SAF annually by 2050 requires unprecedented deployment speed. For context, current global SAF production capacity sits around 3 million tonnes. Achieving 2050 targets necessitates commissioning new production facilities equivalent to building a major oil refinery every few weeks for the next 25 years. Capital requirements reach into the trillions globally.
Beyond production facilities, supply chains need development. Feedstock collection systems must aggregate dispersed agricultural residues or used cooking oil from millions of small sources. Transportation networks must move feedstocks to refineries and distribute finished SAF to airports worldwide. Blending infrastructure at airports requires investment. Each element introduces complexity and capital requirements.
Greenwashing Risks: The term "sustainable" carries weight—and invites scrutiny. Lifecycle analysis calculating SAF's true carbon footprint requires rigorous accounting. Emissions occur during feedstock cultivation or collection, processing, transportation, and combustion. Some SAF pathways achieve 80% emissions reduction compared to petroleum; others deliver far less.
Concerns arise around indirect land-use change. If palm oil diverted from food markets to SAF production causes deforestation elsewhere to replace that palm oil, emissions benefits evaporate. Sustainability certification schemes like ISCC and RSB provide third-party verification, but vigilance remains essential. Full transparency in supply chains and lifecycle carbon accounting protects SAF's credibility as a genuine climate solution.
Risk-Mitigation Playbook
Stakeholders can employ specific strategies addressing these challenges:
For Airlines:
Secure long-term offtake agreements guaranteeing SAF supply, providing producers with revenue certainty enabling project financing
Invest directly in SAF production facilities through equity stakes or advance purchase commitments
Collaborate with cargo airlines and other carriers to aggregate demand and achieve purchasing power
For Fuel Producers:
Diversify feedstock portfolios across multiple categories (lipids, cellulosic, synthetic) to de-risk supply chains
Partner with agricultural cooperatives and waste management companies establishing reliable feedstock collection systems
Pursue modular, scalable facility designs allowing phased capacity additions as markets develop
For Policymakers:
Implement stable, long-term incentives bridging the cost gap between SAF and fossil jet fuel (production tax credits, capital grants, offtake guarantees)
Harmonize regulations across jurisdictions reducing compliance complexity for international aviation
Support R&D funding accelerating commercialization of advanced pathways beyond HEFA
Ensure sustainability criteria prevent perverse outcomes like indirect deforestation
For Waste Management Companies:
Develop feedstock aggregation and preprocessing capabilities serving SAF producers
Invest in gasification infrastructure converting MSW into syngas for Fischer-Tropsch pathways
Establish quality control systems ensuring feedstock meets SAF producer specifications
For Investors:
Recognize SAF's long-term growth trajectory backed by aviation industry net-zero commitments and regulatory mandates
Focus on companies developing advanced pathways (FT, ATJ, e-SAF) complementing mature HEFA technology
Evaluate sustainability credentials rigorously, prioritizing companies with transparent supply chains and third-party certification
Strategic Imperatives & Future Outlook
Scaling waste-to-jet SAF to meet 2030 and 2050 climate targets requires coordinated action across the entire aviation value chain.
Forecast Scenario: Industry projections estimate waste-derived SAF production could reach 15-20 million tonnes by 2030 under current policy trajectories, displacing approximately 5% of conventional jet fuel demand. Achieving IATA's vision of SAF providing 65% of aviation's decarbonization by 2050 requires production reaching 400-450 million tonnes annually—necessitating continued technological advancement, massive capital deployment, and sustained policy support.
The transition won't rely on bio-derived SAF alone. Power-to-Liquid (e-SAF)—synthetic fuel produced from green hydrogen and captured CO₂—complements biogenic pathways. As renewable electricity costs decline and electrolyzer manufacturing scales, e-SAF economics improve. By 2040-2050, e-SAF could contribute 20-35% of SAF supply according to various roadmaps, with bio-SAF providing the balance.
This diversity strengthens resilience. Relying exclusively on one feedstock category creates vulnerability. A portfolio approach leveraging used cooking oil, agricultural residues, MSW, forestry waste, and synthetic pathways maximizes resource utilization while minimizing supply risks.
5 Strategic Actions for Stakeholders
1. Governments: Establish comprehensive SAF policy frameworks including production incentives (investment tax credits, capital grants), blending mandates with realistic timelines, R&D funding for advanced pathways, and sustainability standards preventing greenwashing. Redirect fossil fuel subsidies toward clean aviation fuels. Support workforce development programs training technicians, engineers, and operators for SAF facilities.
2. Airlines: Make bold, public commitments to SAF adoption backed by concrete offtake agreements and financial investments. Share data with policymakers demonstrating SAF's operational performance and emissions benefits. Educate customers about sustainable aviation initiatives justifying modest fare premiums. Collaborate industry-wide rather than compete on sustainability, recognizing climate action benefits all carriers.
3. Fuel Producers: Accelerate commercialization of advanced SAF pathways, particularly Fischer-Tropsch and alcohol-to-jet technologies accessing broader feedstock bases. Improve production efficiencies reducing costs through process optimization, economies of scale, and vertical integration. Maintain rigorous sustainability standards throughout supply chains, obtaining third-party certification providing transparency and accountability.
4. Waste Management Companies: Recognize SAF as premium-value outlet for organic waste streams. Develop preprocessing capabilities (cleaning, sorting, size reduction) preparing feedstocks for conversion. Invest in anaerobic digestion, gasification, and other technologies producing intermediates like syngas or bio-crude suitable for SAF refineries. Establish long-term partnerships with fuel producers creating stable revenue while improving waste diversion rates.
5. Investors: Deploy capital across the SAF value chain—feedstock aggregation, conversion technology development, production facilities, and infrastructure. Recognize that SAF represents not speculative opportunity but essential component of aviation's future backed by irreversible regulatory momentum and industry commitment. Balance risk portfolios with established HEFA investments alongside higher-risk, higher-reward advanced pathway companies. Apply ESG criteria rigorously ensuring investments support genuine emissions reductions.
Conclusion
Green fuel technologies encompass diverse solutions powering humanity's transition away from fossil dependence. Among these options, bio-derived sustainable aviation fuel stands out as a proven, here-and-now solution addressing aviation's climate challenge without waiting for transformative technologies years away.
Waste-to-jet SAF leverages used cooking oil, agricultural residues, forestry waste, and municipal solid waste—materials previously considered trash—converting them into high-value aviation fuel. Through certified pathways like HEFA, Fischer-Tropsch, and alcohol-to-jet, these feedstocks become drop-in fuels reducing lifecycle emissions up to 80% while requiring zero aircraft modifications.
The path ahead demands realism alongside optimism. SAF production must increase 200-fold by 2050. Feedstock constraints require transitioning beyond today's dominant HEFA pathway toward advanced technologies. Cost gaps necessitate sustained policy support bridging economics until scale drives prices down. Infrastructure development requires massive capital mobilization.
Yet these challenges are surmountable. Aviation united behind net-zero 2050 commitments with IATA projecting SAF contributing 65% of required emissions reductions. Mandates in Europe, the United Kingdom, and emerging markets like India create regulatory certainty. Hundreds of production projects announced or under development signal investment momentum. Technology improvements continue enhancing performance while reducing costs.
India exemplifies emerging market potential. With abundant agricultural waste, growing aviation demand, and supportive policies like the National SAF blending targets and Uttar Pradesh's SAF Manufacturing Policy, India can become both major SAF consumer and exporter, creating rural employment while addressing air pollution from crop residue burning.
The synergy between bio-derived SAF and future e-SAF provides resilience. As renewable electricity costs fall, Power-to-Liquid synthetic fuels complement bio-pathways, together meeting aviation's massive fuel appetite. This portfolio approach maximizes resource utilization while minimizing supply risks.
Sustainable aviation fuel isn't the complete answer to aviation emissions—aircraft efficiency improvements, operational optimizations, and eventually hydrogen or electric propulsion for shorter routes all contribute. But SAF provides the foundation enabling immediate, substantial emissions reductions using existing fleets serving billions of passengers annually.
For students exploring green energy careers, waste-to-jet SAF technology offers interdisciplinary opportunities spanning agronomy, chemical engineering, supply chain logistics, and policy development. Researchers can advance conversion technologies, improve lifecycle analysis methodologies, or study socioeconomic impacts on farming communities. Business professionals and investors find growth opportunities in a sector backed by irreversible policy momentum and trillion-dollar capital requirements. Policymakers shape frameworks determining whether climate targets remain aspirational or become reality.
Aviation connects cultures, enables commerce, and shrinks our world. Ensuring this connectivity doesn't cost us our planet requires commitment to green fuel technologies like sustainable aviation fuel. The tools exist. The pathways are certified. The industry stands committed. Now execution determines success.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Can any plane fly on 100% SAF today?
Currently, aircraft are certified to fly with SAF blended up to 50% with conventional jet fuel due to aromatics content requirements that maintain fuel seal compatibility. However, extensive testing is underway to certify 100% SAF operation. Airlines and aircraft manufacturers have successfully conducted test flights using 100% SAF, and ASTM International is developing standards enabling full SAF usage potentially by the late 2020s. Until then, 50% blending allows immediate emissions reductions while maintaining operational safety.
What is the main difference between bio-derived SAF and e-SAF?
Bio-derived SAF converts organic feedstocks—used cooking oil, agricultural residues, waste biomass—through biological or thermochemical processes into jet fuel. E-SAF (electrofuels or Power-to-Liquid) synthesizes fuel from green hydrogen (produced by electrolyzing water using renewable electricity) combined with captured CO₂. While bio-SAF leverages natural carbon cycles, e-SAF creates fuel molecules directly from basic inputs. E-SAF offers unlimited scalability unconstrained by biomass availability but currently costs significantly more. Both are considered sustainable aviation fuels meeting lifecycle emissions criteria.
How can we be sure that SAF is truly sustainable?
Third-party certification schemes like the International Sustainability and Carbon Certification (ISCC) system, Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials (RSB), and CORSIA (Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation) provide verification frameworks. These standards require lifecycle carbon accounting demonstrating emissions reductions, sustainability criteria preventing deforestation and protecting biodiversity, social safeguards ensuring fair labor practices, and supply chain traceability from feedstock origin to final fuel. Only SAF meeting these rigorous standards qualifies under aviation mandates and earns carbon credits, providing transparency and accountability against greenwashing.
Why is SAF so much more expensive than regular jet fuel?
Several factors drive SAF's cost premium: Feedstock costs are higher than crude oil, particularly for used cooking oil and waste fats where supply-demand imbalances exist. Processing facilities require substantial capital investment, and low production volumes prevent economies of scale that reduce per-unit costs. Technology maturity varies; advanced pathways like Fischer-Tropsch remain costlier than established petroleum refining. Policy and incentives haven't yet fully bridged the economics gap. As production scales, technologies improve, and supportive policies expand, costs will decline significantly—projections suggest SAF reaching cost parity with fossil jet fuel by the 2030s in optimal scenarios.
What role will SAF play alongside other green aviation technologies?
SAF serves as the primary decarbonization tool through 2050 while complementary technologies develop. Aircraft efficiency improvements through advanced aerodynamics, lightweight materials, and better engines contribute 20% of emissions reductions. Operational optimizations like improved air traffic management and single-engine taxiing save another 10%. Hydrogen aircraft will serve short- and medium-haul routes beginning in the 2030s, while electric aircraft handle regional distances. SAF remains essential for long-haul international flights where energy density requirements exceed battery capabilities, making it the cornerstone technology enabling aviation's net-zero transition.
References:
International Air Transport Association (IATA)
Net Zero 2050 Roadmaps and SAF Fact Sheets
https://www.iata.org/en/programs/sustainability/sustainable-aviation-fuels/
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
CORSIA Framework and SAF Certification Standards
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)
Reaching Zero with Renewables: Biojet Fuels
ASTM International
D7566 Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized Hydrocarbons
International Energy Agency (IEA)
Aviation Sector Analysis and SAF Production Projections
World Economic Forum
Clean Skies for Tomorrow Coalition
Air Transport Action Group (ATAG)
SkyNRG & ICF
Sustainable Aviation Fuel Market Outlook 2025
Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Government of India
National Biofuels Policy and SAF Roadmap
Deloitte India
Green Wings: India's Sustainable Aviation Fuel Revolution in the Making (2024)
LanzaJet
Alcohol-to-Jet Technology and SAF Production Insights
Neste Corporation
HEFA-SPK Technology and Renewable Fuels Production
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Last Updated: October 2025
Disclaimer: This article is for informational purposes only. Cost projections, technology readiness assessments, and market forecasts are based on current data and expert analyses but are subject to change based on technological developments, policy decisions, and market dynamics. Organizations should conduct thorough due diligence and consult with technical and financial advisors before making investment decisions related to ammonia fuel technologies.
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