Green Methanol: India's Next Big Clean Fuel After Green Hydrogen?

As the world races toward decarbonization, the search for practical, scalable clean fuel alternatives has intensified. While green hydrogen dominates headlines as the future of sustainable energy, another renewable fuel is quietly gaining momentum in India and globally—green methanol.

This low-carbon liquid fuel combines the practicality of traditional fuels with a dramatically reduced environmental footprint, positioning it as a strategic energy solution for the world's third-largest energy consumer.

With India importing over 90% of its methanol demand and facing mounting pressure to decarbonize hard-to-abate sectors like shipping and heavy industry, green methanol offers a transformative pathway that could complement the National Green Hydrogen Mission while addressing unique challenges in India's energy landscape.

Introduction — Why Green Methanol Matters Now

The global energy transition is no longer a distant aspiration—it is an operational imperative. International shipping faces stringent International Maritime Organization regulations mandating net-zero emissions by or around 2050, with interim checkpoints requiring at least 20% emissions reduction by 2030 and 70% by 2040. Heavy industries, aviation, and long-distance transportation all confront similar decarbonization mandates. Yet the transition from fossil fuels to clean alternatives presents complex technical and economic challenges, particularly for developing economies balancing growth with sustainability.

India stands at this critical juncture. The nation's commitment to achieving net-zero emissions by 2070 and installing 500 gigawatts of renewable capacity by 2030 demonstrates ambitious climate leadership. The National Green Hydrogen Mission launched in 2023 targets 5 million metric tonnes of green hydrogen production annually by 2030, backed by substantial policy incentives and infrastructure development. However, hydrogen's inherent limitations—high storage costs, complex transportation infrastructure, low volumetric energy density, and safety concerns—create practical barriers for certain applications.

Enter green methanol as a compelling "bridge fuel" and complementary solution. As a liquid at ambient temperature and pressure, methanol circumvents hydrogen's storage and distribution challenges while offering compatibility with existing fuel infrastructure. For India, where energy security remains paramount and crude oil imports exceed 85% of consumption, domestic green methanol production using abundant renewable resources represents both an economic opportunity and a strategic necessity.

NITI Aayog's Methanol Economy programme explicitly positions methanol as a practical fuel for road, rail, marine, and industrial applications, with targets to reduce crude oil imports by 10% through methanol adoption.

This article examines whether green methanol can truly emerge as India's next major clean fuel, analyzing production technologies, environmental benefits, India-specific opportunities, implementation challenges, and the policy frameworks required to scale this promising renewable energy solution.

What is Green Methanol? — Definitions, Types, and Global Status

Methanol, with the chemical formula CH₃OH, is the simplest alcohol and one of the most versatile chemicals produced globally.

Conventionally, methanol is manufactured from fossil fuel-derived syngas, primarily using natural gas (accounting for approximately 65% of global production) and coal (roughly 35%). This traditional "grey methanol" production releases significant carbon dioxide emissions—about 2.6 to 3.6 tonnes of CO₂ per tonne of methanol produced from coal-based processes.

The distinction between grey, blue, and green methanol lies in the carbon intensity of production pathways. "Blue methanol" refers to fossil fuel-derived methanol where carbon capture and storage technologies mitigate emissions, though it still relies on finite hydrocarbon resources. In contrast, green methanol represents truly renewable production using sustainable feedstocks and processes that create a closed-loop or near-zero carbon cycle.

The Green Distinction: Biomethanol and e-Methanol

Green methanol encompasses two primary production routes, each with distinct advantages and applications:

Biomethanol is produced through the gasification of sustainable biomass feedstocks, including agricultural residues, forestry waste, municipal solid waste, and dedicated energy crops. The biomass undergoes thermochemical conversion at high temperatures (typically 800-1000°C) to produce synthesis gas—a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide.

This syngas is then catalytically converted to methanol using conventional synthesis reactors. India generates approximately 500 million tonnes of agricultural residues annually, presenting substantial feedstock potential for biomethanol production, particularly in rural areas where waste management remains a challenge.

e-Methanol (or electro-methanol) represents the more technologically advanced pathway, synthesized from green hydrogen and captured carbon dioxide through the Power-to-Methanol or Power-to-X process.

Green hydrogen is produced via water electrolysis using renewable electricity from solar, wind, or hydropower sources. This hydrogen is then reacted with CO₂—captured either from industrial point sources or directly from the atmosphere—over catalysts to produce methanol.

The e-methanol pathway enables true carbon neutrality when using biogenic or atmospheric CO₂, as the carbon released during combustion is equivalent to the CO₂ captured during production, creating a closed carbon loop.

Global Market Reality

Despite its promising attributes, green methanol currently accounts for less than 4% of global methanol supply, which reached approximately 112 million tonnes in 2024. However, market projections indicate explosive growth.

The global green methanol market, valued between USD 1.97 billion and USD 2.59 billion in 2024, is forecast to reach USD 11 billion to USD 37 billion by 2030-2034, representing compound annual growth rates exceeding 30-34%. This expansion is driven by maritime sector adoption, supportive regulatory frameworks in Europe and Asia, and increasing corporate sustainability commitments.

China leads renewable methanol deployment, blending approximately 21 million tonnes of methanol with gasoline annually and operating 15 provinces with methanol blend mandates ranging from M15 to M100. Europe, particularly Denmark, the Netherlands, and Germany, has emerged as a hub for e-methanol production, leveraging abundant offshore wind resources and carbon capture infrastructure. India's journey in this space is nascent but accelerating, with NITI Aayog's Methanol Economy programme providing the strategic framework for domestic production and adoption.

How Green Methanol is Produced — A Technical Overview

Understanding green methanol production pathways reveals both the technological maturity and remaining innovation opportunities in this emerging sector.

e-Methanol Route: Power-to-Methanol Process

The Power-to-Methanol pathway represents the most scalable route for carbon-neutral fuel production, particularly in regions with abundant renewable electricity. The process involves three critical steps:

Step 1: Green Hydrogen Generation via Electrolysis

Renewable electricity powers water electrolysis, splitting water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. Alkaline electrolyzers, proton exchange membrane electrolyzers, and solid oxide electrolysis cells each offer different efficiency profiles and operational characteristics.

Global electrolyzer capacity increased by over 50% in 2024, driven by green hydrogen infrastructure investments. However, producing one tonne of methanol requires approximately 200 kilograms of hydrogen, necessitating 10-11 megawatt-hours of renewable electricity—representing over 60% of total production costs.

Step 2: Carbon Dioxide Capture and Purification

CO₂ can be sourced from multiple origins: industrial point sources like cement plants, steel mills, refineries, and thermal power stations; biogenic sources such as biogas upgrading and ethanol fermentation; or direct air capture technologies.

Industrial CO₂ capture is more economically viable than direct air capture, though it requires purification to remove impurities like sulfur compounds and nitrogen oxides that can poison catalysts. For India, industrial CO₂ from coal-based thermal plants (accounting for 30% of national emissions) represents an abundant near-term feedstock.

Step 3: Catalytic Methanol Synthesis

The purified CO₂ and green hydrogen react over heterogeneous catalysts at elevated temperatures (typically 210-270°C) and pressures (5-10 megapascals). Conventional copper-zinc-aluminum oxide catalysts, refined over decades for syngas-based methanol production, also function effectively for CO₂ hydrogenation.

To produce 1,000 kilograms of methanol requires approximately 1,400 kilograms of CO₂, 200 kilograms of hydrogen, and 1,700 kilograms of water, yielding methanol and water as primary products. Carbon conversion efficiencies in commercial plants range from 89-95%, with continuous improvements through catalyst and reactor design innovations.

Biomethanol Route: Gasification and Synthesis

Biomass-to-methanol production leverages established gasification technologies adapted from coal-to-chemicals processes. Dried biomass undergoes thermochemical conversion in oxygen-starved environments at 800-1000°C, producing syngas rich in carbon monoxide and hydrogen. After cleaning to remove tars, particulates, and sulfur compounds, this syngas feeds into conventional methanol synthesis reactors using Cu/ZnO/Al₂O₃ catalysts.

India's decentralized biomass resources favor distributed production models. Agricultural states like Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, which collectively generate over 150 million tonnes of crop residues annually, could host small-to-medium scale biomethanol facilities, simultaneously addressing stubble burning pollution and creating rural employment.

NITI Aayog has sanctioned research and development projects through the Department of Biotechnology, IISc Bengaluru, and Praj Industries for biomass-to-methanol conversion using indigenous technologies.

Technology Innovation and Catalyst Development

Catalyst performance determines both methanol yield and production economics. Recent research has focused on several innovation frontiers:

• Novel Copper-Based Catalysts: Enhanced catalyst formulations incorporating zinc, manganese, and potassium on mesoporous silica supports have achieved methanol synthesis at reduced temperatures (180°C compared to conventional 250-270°C), improving energy efficiency and catalyst longevity.

• Indium Oxide Catalysts: In₂O₃-based catalysts have garnered significant research attention, with over 85 out of 96 studied catalysts between 2020-2024 achieving methanol selectivity above 50%. These materials demonstrate excellent CO₂ activation properties and resistance to water poisoning.

• Single-Atom and Bimetallic Catalysts: Nanostructured catalysts with atomically dispersed active sites show superior activity and selectivity. Palladium-samarium doped ceria catalysts have achieved 97.4% methanol conversion in reforming applications, while copper-cobalt nanostructures optimize CO₂ hydrogenation performance.

Environmental and Operational Advantages

Green methanol's growing prominence stems from a compelling combination of environmental benefits and practical operational advantages that align with both regulatory requirements and market demands.

Emissions Profile and Carbon Neutrality

The environmental case for green methanol centers on its potential for carbon neutrality or near-zero lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions. When produced via the e-methanol pathway using biogenic or atmospheric CO₂, the carbon cycle closes: CO₂ released during combustion equals the CO₂ captured during production. Even accounting for upstream energy inputs, lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced by 70-95% compared to conventional fossil fuels.

Beyond carbon dioxide, green methanol combustion produces minimal criteria pollutants. Sulfur oxide emissions are virtually eliminated, as methanol contains no sulfur. Nitrogen oxide emissions are reduced by approximately 20% compared to diesel combustion due to lower flame temperatures.

Particulate matter and black carbon—major contributors to urban air quality degradation—are eliminated entirely.

For India's port cities and industrial zones struggling with air pollution, this emissions profile offers substantial public health benefits.

Liquid Form Practicality: A Critical Advantage

Perhaps green methanol's most pragmatic advantage is its physical state—liquid at ambient temperature and pressure. This seemingly simple characteristic translates into profound operational and economic benefits:

• Storage Simplicity: Unlike hydrogen, which requires cryogenic cooling to -253°C or compression to 350-700 bar for storage, methanol can be stored in conventional tanks at atmospheric pressure. This eliminates the need for specialized high-pressure vessels or energy-intensive liquefaction equipment.

• Transportation Compatibility: Existing fuel distribution infrastructure—pipelines, tanker trucks, rail cars, and marine bunker vessels—can transport methanol with minimal modifications. India's established petroleum distribution network could integrate methanol blends without wholesale infrastructure replacement.

• Energy Density: Methanol's volumetric energy density (15.6 megajoules per liter) is lower than diesel (35.8 MJ/L) but substantially higher than compressed hydrogen at 700 bar (5.6 MJ/L). This makes methanol particularly attractive for applications where onboard fuel volume is constrained.

Why Green Methanol is a Strategic Clean-Fuel for India (Opportunity Analysis)

India's unique energy landscape, policy ambitions, and industrial structure create particularly compelling conditions for green methanol adoption, positioning it as potentially more transformative domestically than in many developed markets.

Energy Security and Import Dependence Reduction

Energy security remains a defining challenge for India. The nation imports approximately 85% of crude oil requirements, spending over USD 140 billion annually on petroleum products—a substantial drain on foreign exchange reserves and a source of economic vulnerability to global oil price volatility.

Methanol imports compound this dependency, with India producing only 0.8 million tonnes annually against demand of approximately 4 million tonnes, necessitating imports of over 90% of consumption. Demand is projected to grow to 10-15 million tonnes by 2030, driven by chemical industry expansion and potential transport sector adoption.

Domestic green methanol production fundamentally alters this calculus. India's renewable energy installed capacity exceeded 190 gigawatts in 2024, with ambitious targets of 500 GW by 2030. Solar tariffs have declined to USD 0.028 per kilowatt-hour—among the world's lowest—creating favorable economics for green hydrogen and e-methanol production.

States like Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra offer abundant solar irradiation exceeding 5.5 kilowatt-hours per square meter per day, ideal for large-scale Power-to-X facilities.

Circular Economy and Industrial CO₂ Utilization

India's industrial sector generates substantial point-source CO₂ emissions that green methanol production can valorize into economic assets. Coal-based thermal power plants, cement kilns, steel blast furnaces, refineries, and fertilizer plants collectively emit hundreds of millions of tonnes of relatively concentrated CO₂ annually—far more cost-effective to capture than diffuse atmospheric CO₂.

The recently inaugurated CO₂-to-Methanol pilot plant in Pune, Maharashtra, exemplifies this opportunity. Developed by IIT Delhi and Thermax Limited under a public-private partnership with Department of Science and Technology support at a cost of INR 31 crore, the facility captures CO₂ from both coal gasification syngas and combustion flue gases, converting it to 1.4 tonnes per day of methanol.

This "CCU Living Lab" focuses on indigenous catalyst development and process optimization tailored to Indian coal characteristics (high ash content) and industrial CO₂ compositions.

Scaling this approach could transform India's emissions profile. Coal-based thermal generation, which accounts for approximately 30% of national CO₂ emissions, represents a prime feedstock source. Rather than viewing these emissions as waste requiring disposal, carbon capture and utilization frameworks transform them into revenue-generating feedstocks.

Export Potential: Positioning India as a Global Green Fuel Supplier

India's abundant renewable resources, declining production costs, and strategic geographic location create potential for green methanol and derivative fuel exports.

The global shipping industry requires estimated annual green methanol volumes of 5-10 million tonnes by 2030, ramping to nearly 100 million tonnes by 2050.

India can leverage several competitive advantages: low-cost renewable electricity (30-40% below European equivalents), abundant CO₂ feedstock (industrial capture costs at USD 30-50 per tonne), strategic port infrastructure on both eastern and western coasts, and growing electrolyzer manufacturing capacity.

The global green methanol trade is dominated by China and European exporters. India's entry as a major exporter by 2030 could capture substantial market share.

Challenges & Roadblocks: Bridging the Gap in India

Despite compelling advantages, substantial obstacles impede green methanol's rapid scaling in India. Honest assessment of these challenges is essential for realistic policy formulation and investment planning.

Cost Barrier: The Economics of Green Methanol

Production cost represents the most significant barrier to green methanol commercialization. Conventional grey methanol, produced from natural gas, costs approximately USD 200-300 per tonne at 2024 market prices.

Green methanol, by contrast, carries production costs ranging from USD 600-1,200 per tonne depending on renewable electricity prices, capacity factors, and capital costs—representing a 2-4x cost premium over grey methanol.

This cost structure stems primarily from green hydrogen production expenses, which account for 60-70% of total e-methanol costs.

Several factors will compress this cost differential over time: renewable electricity cost decline, economies of scale, carbon pricing and policy support, and technology learning curves.

However, even optimistic projections suggest green methanol will require policy support until approximately 2030-2035 to achieve price parity with conventional methanol.

Feedstock Sustainability and Supply Chain Challenges

Both biomethanol and e-methanol pathways face feedstock availability and sustainability concerns specific to the Indian context. While India generates 500 million tonnes of agricultural residues annually, collection logistics remain challenging. Biomass is geographically dispersed across millions of small landholdings, lacks established aggregation mechanisms, and competes with existing uses.

Although India's industrial emissions provide abundant CO₂, capture infrastructure remains limited. Retrofitting existing thermal power plants, cement kilns, and steel mills with CO₂ capture systems requires significant capital investment (USD 50-120 per tonne of annual capture capacity) and energy penalties (20-35% reduction in net plant efficiency for amine-based capture).

Infrastructure Gaps: Distribution, Storage, and Bunkering

Green methanol adoption requires parallel infrastructure development across production, distribution, storage, and end-use segments. Maritime sector adoption depends critically on methanol bunkering availability at major ports.

Currently, only a handful of global ports—Rotterdam, Copenhagen, Singapore—offer methanol bunkering services. Indian ports lack dedicated methanol storage tanks, transfer equipment, and bunkering vessels required for ship refueling.

Developing this infrastructure at India's 12 major ports requires estimated investments of USD 50-100 million per port for tanks, pipelines, and safety systems.

Methanol blending with gasoline or diesel requires modifications to existing distribution terminals, including dedicated storage tanks, blending equipment, and quality control laboratories. Retail fuel stations need minor upgrades.

The ethanol blending programme provides a template, but scaling to 15% methanol blending (M15) across India's approximately 90,000 fuel retail outlets represents a substantial coordination challenge.

Comparative Analysis: Green Methanol vs. The Alternatives

Positioning green methanol within India's broader clean fuel landscape requires systematic comparison against competing alternatives.

Green Methanol vs. Green Hydrogen

Green hydrogen offers the ultimate zero-emission solution at the point of use, producing only water vapor. However, hydrogen's volumetric energy density challenges are severe.

Even compressed to 700 bar, hydrogen stores only 5.6 MJ/L compared to methanol's 15.6 MJ/L—a 2.8x disadvantage.

Storage, transportation, and dispensing infrastructure costs for hydrogen exceed methanol by factors of 3-5x.

For India, hydrogen's role appears most promising in stationary applications and potentially heavy-duty transport once infrastructure matures post-2035. Methanol serves as the practical bridge, enabling immediate emissions reductions using existing internal combustion engine technology.

Green Methanol vs. Green Ammonia and Bio-CNG

Green ammonia has emerged as another marine fuel candidate. However, ammonia faces significant challenges: acute toxicity, complex combustion characteristics requiring pilot fuels, and entirely new bunkering infrastructure requirements.

For the Indian context, methanol's lower toxicity, simpler combustion, and infrastructure compatibility provide decisive advantages through 2030-2035.

India's existing biofuel policy emphasizes bio-CNG for urban transport. However, bio-CNG faces limitations where methanol excels: lower energy density, long-distance transport challenges, and feedstock constraints. Battery-electric vehicles dominate light-duty urban transport, but electric propulsion faces constraints in heavy-duty applications where methanol offers superior energy density.

Roadmap for Implementation: Policy, Industry & Infrastructure Recommendations

Realizing green methanol's potential in India requires coordinated action across policy, industry, research, and infrastructure domains.

Policy Framework: Beyond Current Initiatives

While NITI Aayog's Methanol Economy programme provides strategic direction, implementation requires concrete policy instruments:

• Comprehensive National Green Methanol Policy with specific milestones for 2025, 2030, and 2040

• Production-Linked Incentive Scheme for integrated methanol synthesis facilities, catalysts, and CO₂ capture equipment

• Carbon Pricing and Credits that internalize fossil fuel externalities

• Differential Taxation reducing GST on green methanol to 5% with excise duty exemptions

• Purchase Mandates requiring oil marketing companies to procure green methanol percentages

• Regulatory Standardization developing Indian Standards (BIS) specifications for quality and safety

Infrastructure Development Priorities

Strategic infrastructure investments must precede or parallel demand creation. Port infrastructure should be prioritized at India's top five container ports. Oil marketing companies must establish methanol blending capabilities at distribution terminals. Regional CO₂ pipeline networks should connect industrial clusters with green methanol production hubs.

Research and Development Imperatives

Technology development must address India-specific challenges including indigenous catalyst development, high-ash coal gasification, biomass supply chain innovation, and green hydrogen cost reduction targeting below USD 2/kg by 2030.

Conclusion: Can Green Methanol Be India's "Next Big Clean Fuel"?

The evidence suggests an affirmative answer, though success is neither automatic nor guaranteed. Green methanol possesses the technical characteristics, economic potential, and strategic alignment with India's needs to emerge as a cornerstone of the nation's decarbonization strategy—particularly for hard-to-abate sectors like maritime transport, heavy industry, and long-distance freight where direct hydrogen use or electrification face formidable barriers.

Green methanol's liquid form at ambient conditions provides unmatched practicality, enabling immediate deployment using existing infrastructure while avoiding the extensive networks required for hydrogen distribution. Its versatility across applications—direct combustion fuel, chemical feedstock, hydrogen carrier—creates multiple demand pathways supporting market development.

India's specific advantages—abundant renewable energy resources yielding the world's lowest solar electricity costs, substantial industrial CO₂ emissions providing ready feedstock, extensive biomass resources addressing rural waste management, and strategic port infrastructure for exports—position the country exceptionally well to lead global green methanol production and adoption.

However, realizing this potential demands decisive action across three critical dimensions. Economic viability requires sustained policy support—production-linked incentives, blending mandates, carbon pricing, differential taxation—bridging the 2-4x cost premium during the crucial 2025-2035 period. Infrastructure development necessitates coordinated investments in CO₂ capture systems, port bunkering facilities, and distribution terminals. Technology advancement must reduce production costs and improve catalyst performance.

The success of green methanol adoption ultimately hinges on integrated policy execution extending beyond aspirational targets to concrete implementation timelines, financial commitments, and regulatory frameworks.

As India pursues its net-zero 2070 ambitions and near-term 2030 renewable energy targets, green methanol emerges as neither a silver bullet nor a niche solution. Instead, it represents a pragmatic, scalable, and economically attractive complement to green hydrogen, renewable electricity, and biofuels in a diverse clean energy portfolio.

FAQs — Answering Common Questions

1. What is green methanol and how is it different from regular methanol?

Green methanol is methanol produced from renewable, low-carbon sources rather than fossil fuels. Regular "grey" methanol is manufactured from natural gas or coal, releasing 2.6-3.6 tonnes of CO₂ per tonne produced. Green methanol is produced either through biomethanol (gasification of sustainable biomass) or e-methanol (combining green hydrogen with captured CO₂). This creates a closed-loop carbon cycle, reducing lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions by 70-95% compared to conventional methanol.

2. Is green methanol carbon-neutral? Is it better than diesel or petrol?

Green methanol can achieve near-carbon-neutrality when produced via e-methanol using biogenic or atmospheric CO₂. The CO₂ released during combustion roughly equals the CO₂ captured during production. Compared to diesel and petrol, green methanol offers substantial advantages: virtual elimination of sulfur oxide and particulate emissions, approximately 20% reduction in nitrogen oxide emissions, and up to 95% lower lifecycle CO₂ emissions. However, its volumetric energy density (15.6 MJ/L) is lower than diesel (35.8 MJ/L), requiring slightly more fuel volume.

3. Can green methanol replace green hydrogen?

No, green methanol complements rather than replaces green hydrogen. These fuels serve different optimal applications. Green hydrogen is ideal for steel manufacturing, fertilizer production, and potentially heavy-duty trucks with extensive infrastructure. Green methanol excels in maritime transport, railways, aviation, and distributed backup power requiring liquid fuel practicality. Many green methanol production pathways require green hydrogen as feedstock, creating synergistic relationships.

4. What sectors can use green methanol?

Maritime shipping represents the largest near-term opportunity, with over 360 methanol-capable vessels in service or on order. Road transport can use methanol in flex-fuel engines or blended with gasoline (M15, M85). Indian Railways plans to convert 6,000 diesel locomotives to methanol. The chemical industry uses methanol as feedstock for formaldehyde, acetic acid, and olefins. Industrial applications include boilers, diesel generator replacements, and process heating. Emerging uses include sustainable aviation fuel and hydrogen carriers.

5. What are the main challenges in producing green methanol?

The primary challenge is production cost—green methanol currently costs 2-4x more than conventional methanol due to expensive green hydrogen production (60-70% of total costs). Other challenges include: securing sustainable CO₂ feedstock, developing distribution infrastructure including pipelines and port bunkering facilities, managing India's fragmented biomass supply chain, addressing water requirements in water-stressed regions, and establishing comprehensive safety protocols for methanol handling given its toxicity. Technology improvements, economies of scale, and policy support are progressively addressing these challenges.

6. Can India scale green methanol production at large scale?

Yes, India possesses several advantages enabling large-scale production. Renewable energy capacity exceeded 190 GW in 2024 with 500 GW targets by 2030, providing low-cost electricity (USD 0.028/kWh). Industrial CO₂ emissions from thermal power, cement, and steel offer substantial feedstock. Approximately 500 million tonnes of annual agricultural residues provide biomass potential. NITI Aayog targets 5 million tonnes annual capacity by 2030, potentially reaching 25 million tonnes by 2040. Success depends on sustained policy support through incentives, blending mandates, infrastructure investments, and carbon pricing mechanisms.

7. How does green methanol compare with other clean fuels?

Each clean fuel occupies distinct niches. Green hydrogen offers highest gravimetric energy density and zero emissions but faces storage and infrastructure challenges—most suitable for stationary industrial applications. Green ammonia contains no carbon and has established production infrastructure but faces toxicity concerns. Bio-CNG suits urban transport with existing infrastructure but has lower energy density. Green methanol provides optimal characteristics for hard-to-electrify transport—liquid at ambient conditions, infrastructure compatibility, moderate energy density, lower toxicity than ammonia, and immediate commercial availability.

References & Citations:

This article was comprehensively researched, drafted, and compiled based on the following credible and authoritative sources:

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